Lithium Market Becoming More Reliant on Batteries for Continued Strong Demand Growth
16 May, 2013, 17:03 BST
LONDON, May 16, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --
Rise in Consumption and Future Demand Driven by Lithium-ion Batteries
Roskill estimates that rechargeable batteries accounted for 27% of global lithium consumption in 2012, up from 15% in 2007 and 8% in 2002. This end-use was responsible for 44% of the net increase in lithium consumption over the last ten years, and 70% over the last five years. In the base-case growth scenario it is expected to contribute 75% of the growth in forecast demand to 2017, when total demand for lithium is expected to reach slightly over 238,000t lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE).
Other end-uses, including glass-ceramics, greases and polymers, have also shown high rates of growth, but are predicted to moderate over the next five years as emerging economy growth slows. The lithium industry is therefore becoming more reliant on rechargeable batteries to sustain high rates of future demand growth. In addition, in the period to 2017 Roskill forecasts that the main market driver for lithium-ion batteries will gradually switch from portable consumer electronics to electric vehicles, especially hybrid variants.
Reflecting the concentration of lithium-ion battery manufacturers and associated cathode material producers in China, Japan and South Korea, the East Asia region has become an increasingly important consumer of lithium products over the last decade. In 2012, East Asia accounted for 60% of total global consumption with Europe accounting for a further 24% and North America 9%.
Growing Supply-side Pressure is Predicted to Stall Further Lithium Price Rises
Roskill's analysis suggests that the price of technical-grade lithium carbonate, the main product produced and consumed in the lithium market, recovered some of its global economic downturn losses as the market tightened in 2012, averaging US$5,300/t CIF, up 15% from 2010. This is below the 2007 peak of US$6,500/t, but well above the US$2,000-3,000/t levels seen in the early 2000s.
Lithium extraction, which totalled over 168,000t LCE in 2012, is undertaken predominately in Australia, Chile, Argentina and China, with roughly half of lithium output from hard rock sources and half from brine. Production is dominated by Talison Lithium in Australia, SQM and Rockwood Lithium in Chile, and FMC in Argentina. Just over two-thirds of lithium minerals extracted in Australia are processed into downstream chemical products in China, where producers such as Tianqi Lithium (who recently acquired Talison to secure a captive supply of mineral feedstock) operate mineral conversion plants.
Galaxy Resources commissioned a new 17,000tpy LCE mineral conversion plant in China in 2012. Canada Lithium is in the process of commissioning a 20,000tpy LCE plant in Quebec and several existing Chinese mineral conversion plants are also expanding capacity. FMC has increased brine-based processing capacity by a third in Argentina, while nearby Orocobre is also constructing a new brine-based operation due to be completed in 2014. In addition, Rockwood Lithium plans to complete a 20,000tpy LCE expansion in Chile in 2014. Combined, this additional capacity totals just under 100,000tpy LCE, enough to meet forecast demand to 2017.
As the opening of new and expanded capacity is concentrated over the next two years, Roskill forecasts that the lithium market could witness increased competition and supply-side pressure on pricing, with prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate potentially falling back to around US$5,000/t CIF in 2014.
Lithium: Market Outlook to 2017 (12th edition)is available at a price of £4900 / US$7900 / €6200 from Roskill Information Services Ltd, 54 Russell Road, London SW19 1QL ENGLAND.
Tel: +44-(0)20-8417-0087. Fax +44-(0)20-8417-1308.
Email: info@roskill.co.uk Web: http://www.roskill.com/lithium
Note to editors
The report contains 426 pages, 245 tables and 99 figures. It provides a detailed review of the industry, with subsections on the activities of the leading producing companies. It also analyses consumption, trade and prices.
Table of Contents
Page
1. Summary 1
2. Lithium Mineralogy, Occurrences and Reserves 10
2.1 Occurrence of lithium 10
2.1.1 Lithium minerals 10
2.1.2 Lithium clays 12
2.1.3 Lithium brines 12
2.2 Lithium reserves 14
3. Lithium mining and processing 16
3.1 Extraction and processing of lithium brines 17
3.1.1 Other methods of brine extraction 20
3.2 Mining and processing of lithium minerals 21
3.3 Processing lithium mineral concentrates to lithium compounds 23
3.4 Processing lithium bearing clays into lithium compounds 26
3.5 Lithium compounds and chemicals 27
3.6 Production costs 30
4. Production of lithium 34
4.1 Lithium production by source 35
4.1.1 Production of Lithium Minerals 37
4.1.2 Production from Lithium Brines 39
4.1.3 Production of lithium compounds from mineral conversion 41
4.1.4 Production of downstream lithium chemicals 43
4.2 Outlook for production capacity of lithium to 2017 44
4.2.1 Outlook for production capacity of lithium minerals 45
4.2.2 Outlook for lithium production capacity from brines 48
4.2.3 Outlook on lithium compound production from mineral conversion 51
4.3 Forecast production of lithium to 2017 52
5. Review of lithium producing countries 55
5.1 Afghanistan 55
5.2 Argentina 56
5.2.1 FMC Litihum (MineradelAltiplano S.A.) 58
5.2.2 ADY Resources 59
5.2.3 Lithium Americas 61
5.2.4 Galaxy Resources (Lithium 1) 66
5.2.4.1 Sal de Vida Project 66
5.2.4.2 James Bay Hard-rock Lithium Project 68
5.2.5 Orocobre Ltd. 69
5.2.5.1 Salar de Olaroz 71
5.2.5.2 Salinas Grandes (Cangrejillo) 74
5.2.5.3 Guayatoyoc Project 74
5.2.5.4 Cauchari Project 75
5.2.6 Rodinia Lithium Inc. 76
5.2.6.1 Rodinia Lithium USA 78
5.2.7 Marifil Mines Ltd. 78
5.2.8 International Lithium Corporation 79
5.2.9 Other prospects for Lithium Production 79
5.3 Australia 80
5.3.1 Talison Lithium 82
5.3.1.1 Resources and Reserves 82
5.3.1.2 Production 85
5.3.1.3 Products 86
5.3.2 Galaxy Resources Ltd. 87
5.3.2.1 Reserves and Resources 88
5.3.2.2 Production 90
5.3.3 Reed Resources Ltd. 91
5.3.4 Altura Mining Ltd. 92
5.3.5 Artemis Resources 93
5.3.6 Amerilithium 93
5.3.7 Reward Minerals 93
5.4 Austria 93
5.5 Belgium 94
5.6 Bolivia 96
5.6.1 Salar de Uyuni 97
5.6.2 Salar de Coipasa 99
5.6.3 New World Resource Corp. 99
5.7 Brazil 100
5.7.1 CompanhiaBrasileira de Litio 102
5.7.2 Arqueana de Minérios e Metais Ltda. 103
5.7.3 Advance Metallurgical Group (AMG) 104
5.8 Canada 104
5.8.1 Lithium resources in Canada 105
5.8.2 Canadian trade in lithium 107
5.8.3 Past producers of lithium in Canada 108
5.8.3.1 Tantalum Mining Corp. of Canada Ltd. (TANCO) 108
5.8.4 Potential new producers of lithium in Canada 109
5.8.4.1 Canada Lithium Corp. 109
5.8.4.2 Nemaska Lithium 112
5.8.4.3 Avalon Rare Metals Inc. 115
5.8.4.4 Perilya Limited 116
5.8.4.5 Rock Tech Lithium Inc. 117
5.8.4.6 Critical Elements Corporation 120
5.8.4.7 Glen Eagle Resources Inc. 120
5.8.4.8 Aben Resources Ltd. 121
5.8.4.9 Toxco Inc. Canada 122
5.8.4.10 Other Canadian Lithium Projects 122
5.9 Chile 126
5.9.1 Chilean lithium reserves 127
5.9.2 Chilean lithium production 127
5.9.3 Special Lithium Operations Contracts (CEOLs) 128
5.9.4 SociedadQuímica y Minera 129
5.9.4.1 Reserves and Resources 130
5.9.4.2 Production 131
5.9.4.3 Products 132
5.9.4.4 Markets 134
5.9.4.5 Exports 135
5.9.5 Rockwood Litihum (Salar de Atacama and La Negra Plant) 136
5.9.6 Simbalik Group 138
5.9.7 Li3 Energy Inc. 139
5.9.7.1 Maricunga Property 139
5.9.7.2 Li3 Energy Peruvian Projects 141
5.9.8 First Potash Corp. 141
5.9.9 CODELCO 142
5.9.10 Mammoth Energy Group Inc. 142
5.9.11 Lomiko Metals Inc. 143
5.9.12 Errázuriz Lithium 143
5.9.13 Exports of litihum from Chile 143
5.10 China 146
5.10.1 Chinese reserves of lithium 147
5.10.1.1 Lithium Mineral Reserves 147
5.10.1.2 Lithium Brine Reserves 148
5.10.2 Production of lithium 149
5.10.2.1 Mineral Production 150
5.10.2.2 Brine Production 151
5.10.2.3 Lithium Chemicals and Metal Production 152
5.10.3 Chinese trade in lithium 155
5.10.4 Chinese lithium brine producers 157
5.10.4.1 Tibet Lithium New Technology Development Co. Ltd. 157
5.10.4.2 Qinghai CITIC Guoan Technology Development Co. Ltd. 159
5.10.4.3 Qinghai Salt Lake Industry Co. Ltd. 160
5.10.4.4 Qinghai Lanke Lithium Industry Co. Ltd. 161
5.10.4.5 Tibet Sunrise Mining Development Ltd. 162
5.10.4.6 China MinMetals Non-Ferrous Metals Co. Ltd 163
5.10.5 Chinese lithium mineral producers 163
5.10.5.1 Fujian Huamin Import & Export Co. Ltd. 163
5.10.5.2 YichunHuili Industrial Co. Ltd. 164
5.10.5.3 GanZiRongda Lithium Co., Ltd. 164
5.10.5.4 Sichuan HidiliDexin Mineral Industry 165
5.10.5.5 Xinjiang Non-Ferrous Metals (Group) Ltd. 166
5.10.6 Chinese lithium mineral producers with mineral conversion capacity 166
5.10.6.1 Jiangxi Western Resources Lithium Industry 166
5.10.6.2 Sichuan Aba Guangsheng Lithium Co. Ltd. 167
5.10.6.3 Minfeng Lithium Co. Ltd. 167
5.10.6.4 Sichuan Ni&CoGuorun New Materials Co. Ltd. 168
5.10.7 Chinese mineral conversion plants 169
5.10.7.1 Sichuan Tianqi Lithium Shareholding Co. Ltd. 169
5.10.7.2 Galaxy Resources (Jiangsu Lithium Carbonate Plant) 171
5.10.7.3 General Lithium (Haimen) Corp. 172
5.10.7.4 China Non-Ferrous Metal Import & Export Xinjiang Corp. 173
5.10.7.5 Sichuan State Lithium Materials Co. Ltd. 174
5.10.7.6 Jiangxi Ganfeng Lithium Co. Ltd. 174
5.10.7.7 Sichuan Chenghehua Lithium Technology Co. Ltd. 176
5.10.8 Chinese lithium chemical producers 176
5.10.9 Specialist lithium bromide producers 177
5.10.10 Specialist lithium metal producers 178
5.11 Czech Republic 179
5.12 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 179
5.13 Finland 180
5.13.1 KeliberOy 180
5.13.2 Nortec Minerals Corp. 181
5.13.3 Leviäkangas Deposit 182
5.13.4 Syväjärvi Deposit 182
5.14 France 182
5.15 Germany 184
5.15.1 Rockwood Lithium (Langelsheim Plant) 185
5.15.2 Helm AG 185
5.15.3 Lithium exploration in Germany 185
5.16 Greece 186
5.17 India 186
5.17.1 FMC India Private Ltd. 188
5.17.2 Rockwood Lithium 188
5.18 Ireland 189
5.19 Israel 189
5.20 Japan 190
5.21 Kazakhstan 192
5.22 Mali 193
5.23 Mexico 193
5.23.1 LitioMex S.A. de C.V. (PieroSutti S.A. de C.V.) 193
5.23.2 First Potash Corp. (Mexico) 195
5.23.3 Bacanora Minerals Ltd. 195
5.24 Mongolia 196
5.25 Mozambique 196
5.26 Namibia 197
5.27 Netherlands 198
5.28 Portugal 199
5.28.1 SociedadMineira de Pegmatites 200
5.29 Russia 200
5.29.1 Russian Lithium Reserves and Resources 201
5.29.2 Russian Lithium Production 202
5.29.2.1 JSC Chemical and Metallurgical Plant 202
5.29.2.2 JSC Novosibirsk Chemical Concentration Plant 203
5.29.3 Russian Imports and Exports of Lithium 204
5.30 Serbia 205
5.31 South Africa 206
5.32 South Korea 206
5.33 Spain 207
5.33.1 Minera Del Duero 208
5.33.2 Solid Resources Ltd. 209
5.34 Taiwan 209
5.35 Tajikistan 210
5.36 Turkey 210
5.37 UK 211
5.38 Ukraine 212
5.39 USA 212
5.39.1 Trade in lithium to/from the USA 213
5.39.2 Rockwood Lithium (Chemetall Group) 214
5.39.2.1 Silver Peak, Kings Mountain and New Johnsonville operations (USA) 215
5.39.3 FMC Corporation 216
5.39.3.1 FMC Lithium 217
5.39.3.2 Other FMC Corporation facilities 218
5.39.4 Western Lithium Corporation 219
5.39.5 Simbol Materials Corp. 222
5.39.6 Albemarle Corporation 223
5.39.7 Toxco Inc. 223
5.39.8 AusAmerican Mining Corp. Ltd. 223
5.39.9 Other USA Companies 224
5.40 Uzbekistan 226
5.41 Zimbabwe 226
5.41.1 Bikita Minerals Ltd 227
5.41.2 Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation 228
5.41.3 Premier African Minerals 228
5.41.4 Cape Range Ltd. 229
6. International trade in lithium 230
6.1 Trade in lithium carbonate 230
6.2 Trade in lithium hydroxide and oxides 233
6.3 Trade in lithium chloride 236
6.4 Trade in mineral concentrates 237
6.5 Trade in lithium brines 238
7. Consumption of lithium 239
7.1 Consumption of lithium by end-use 239
7.2 Consumption of lithium by country/region 243
7.3 Consumption of lithium by product 245
7.4 Outlook for consumption of lithium by end-use 247
7.5 Outlook for lithium consumption by product 251
8. Use of lithium in rechargeable batteries 253
8.1 Types of rechargeable batteries 253
8.1.1 Lithium-ion batteries 254
8.1.2 Lithium metal polymer batteries 256
8.1.3 Lithium-sulphur batteries 256
8.1.4 Lithium-air batteries 258
8.1.5 NiMH and NiCd batteries 258
8.2 Production of rechargeable batteries 258
8.2.1 Producers of rechargeable lithium batteries 261
8.2.2 Producers of nickel metal hydride batteries 262
8.3 Production of rechargeable lithium battery materials 262
8.3.1 Producers of rechargeable lithium battery materials 264
8.3.1.1 Cathode materials 264
8.3.1.2 Electrolyte salts 267
8.3.1.3 Anode materials 268
8.4 Consumption of rechargeable lithium batteries 268
8.4.1 Computing, communication and consumer (3C) market 269
8.4.2 Power devices and motive power 270
8.4.3 Heavy duty applications 272
8.4.4 Transportation 272
8.5 Consumption of NiMH and NiCd batteries 274
8.6 Consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries 274
8.7 Outlook for demand for rechargeable batteries 278
8.8 Outlook for consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries 281
9. Use of lithium in ceramics 284
9.1 Use of lithium in ceramics 284
9.2 Production and consumption of ceramics 286
9.2.1 Ceramic tiles 287
9.2.1.1 Producers of ceramic tiles 289
9.2.2 Sanitaryware 291
9.2.2.1 Producers of sanitaryware 291
9.2.3 Tableware 293
9.2.3.1 Producers of tableware 294
9.2.4 Cookware and bakeware 295
9.3 Production and consumption of glazes and enamels 295
9.3.1 Producers of glazes and enamels 297
9.4 Outlook for ceramics production and consumption 298
9.5 Consumption of lithium in ceramics 299
9.5.1 Outlook for lithium demand in ceramics 300
10. Use of lithium in glass-ceramics 302
10.1 Use of lithium in glass-ceramics 302
10.2 Production and consumption of glass-ceramics 304
10.2.1 Producers of glass-ceramics 305
10.3 Consumption of lithium in glass-ceramics 306
11. Use of lithium in lubricating grease 309
11.1 Types of lubricating grease 309
11.2 Production of grease 311
11.2.1 Producers of lithium grease 314
11.3 Consumption of lithium greases 317
11.4 Consumption of lithium in greases 320
11.4.1 Outlook for demand for lithium in greases 321
12. Use of lithium in glass 323
12.1 Use of lithium in glass 323
12.2 Production and consumption of glass 325
12.2.1 Container glass 326
12.2.2 Fibreglass 329
12.2.3 Speciality glass 330
12.3 Consumption of lithium in glass 330
12.3.1 Outlook for demand for lithium in glass 331
13. Use of lithium in metallurgical powders 333
13.1 Continuous casting 333
13.1.1 Producers of continuous casting mould powders 334
13.1.2 Continually cast steel production 334
13.1.3 Consumption of continuous casting mould powders 335
13.1.4 Consumption of lithium in continuous casting mould powders 335
13.2 Traditional metal casting 337
13.3 Outlook for demand for lithium in casting powders 337
14. Use of lithium in polymers 338
14.1 Types of polymers 338
14.2 Production of polymers 340
14.2.1 Producers of polymers 342
14.3 Consumption of polymers 344
14.4 Consumption of lithium in polymers 348
14.4.1 Outlook for lithium demand in polymers 348
15. Use of lithium in air treatment 350
15.1 Absorption chillers 350
15.1.1 Production of absorption chillers 351
15.1.2 Producers of adsorption chillers 352
15.1.3 Producers of lithium bromide for absorption chillers 354
15.1.4 Consumption of lithium in absorption chillers 356
15.2 Dehumidification 357
15.2.1 Production of desiccant dehumidification systems 358
15.2.2 Producers of desiccant dehumidification systems 358
15.2.3 Consumption of lithium in desiccant dehumidifiers 359
15.3 Air purification 359
15.5 Outlook for demand for lithium in air treatment 360
16. Use of lithium in primary batteries 362
16.1 Types of primary batteries 362
16.2 Production of lithium primary batteries 365
16.2.1 Producers of lithium primary batteries 367
16.3 Trade in primary batteries 369
16.4 Production of primary lithium battery materials 370
16.4.1 Producers of lithium primary battery anodes 371
16.5 Consumption of lithium primary batteries 373
16.5.1 Outlook for primary lithium battery consumption 374
16.6 Consumption of lithium in primary batteries 374
16.6.1 Outlook for demand for lithium in primary batteries 377
17. Use of lithium in aluminium smelting 378
17.1 Process of aluminium smelting 378
17.2 Consumers of lithium in aluminium smelting 380
17.3 Consumption of lithium in aluminium smelting 382
17.3.1 Outlook for lithium demand in aluminium smelting 383
18. Minor end-uses for lithium 385
18.1 Sanitization 385
18.2 Organic synthesis 386
18.3 Construction 388
18.4 Alkyd resins 388
18.5 Alloys 391
18.5.1 Aluminium-lithium alloy 391
18.5.1.1 Producers of aluminium-lithium alloys 394
18.5.1.2 Applications for aluminium-lithium alloys 395
18.5.1.3 Consumption of lithium in aluminium-lithium alloys 398
18.5.1.4 Outlook for demand for lithium in aluminium-lithium alloys 398
18.5.2 Magnesium-lithium alloy 400
18.6 Electronics 400
18.7 Analytical agents 402
18.8 Dyestuffs 402
18.9 Metallurgy 402
18.10 Photographic industry 402
18.11 Welding fluxes 402
18.12 Electrochromic glass 403
18.13 Pharmaceuticals 403
18.13.1 Producers of lithium-based pharmaceuticals 404
18.13.2 Production and consumption of lithium-based pharmaceuticals 404
18.13.3 Consumption of lithium in pharmaceuticals 405
18.14 Speciality lithium inorganics 405
19. Prices of lithium 408
19.1 Technical-grade lithium mineral prices 409
19.2 Chemical-grade spodumene prices 412
19.3 Technical-grade lithium carbonate prices 413
19.4 Battery-grade lithium carbonate 415
19.5 Technical-grade lithium hydroxide prices 416
19.6 Battery-grade lithium hydroxide prices 418
19.7 Lithium chloride prices 419
19.8 Lithium metal prices 420
19.9 Outlook for lithium prices 421
19.9.1 Technical-grade lithium carbonate prices 421
19.9.2 Battery-grade lithium carbonate prices 424
19.9.3 Technical-grade lithium mineral prices 425
19.9.4 Chemical-grade spodumene prices 425
19.9.5 Lithium hydroxide prices 426
List of Tables
Page
Table 1: World: Forecast nominal and real prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 2012 to 2017 8
Table 2: Properties of lithium 10
Table 3: Significant lithium minerals 11
Table 4: Major lithium bearing smectite group members 12
Table 5: Brine concentrations at selected deposits 13
Table 6: Lithium reserves by country 15
Table 7: Composition of standard lithium concentrates 22
Table 8: Specifications for lithium carbonate produced by SQM and Rockwood Lithium 28
Table 9: Specifications for lithium carbonate produced by other suppliers 28
Table 10: Battery grade lithium hydroxide product specifications of major producers 29
Table 11: Production of lithium by country and company, 2005 to 2012 35
Table 12: Capacity and production of lithium minerals by company, 2011 to 2012 39
Table 13: Capacity and production of lithium compounds from brine-based producers, 2011 to 2012 40
Table 14: Capacity and production of lithium mineral converters, 2011 to 2012 42
Table 15: Production of lithium compounds from minerals, 2005 to 2012 43
Table 16: Planned expansions as reported by existing lithium mineral producers to 2017 46
Table 17: Potential lithium mineral producers to 2017 47
Table 18: Planned expansions by existing lithium brine producers to 2017 49
Table 19: Potential new lithium brine projects to 2017 50
Table 20: Planned expansions to production capacity for existing and potential mineral conversion plants 51
Table 21: Afghanistan: Spodumene bearing pegmatites identified in Nuristan, Badakhshan, Nangarhar, Lagman and Uruzgan provinces 55
Table 22: Argentina: Exports of lithium carbonate, 2004 to 2012 57
Table 23: Argentina: Exports of lithium chloride, 2004 to 2012 58
Table 24:FMC: Brine reserves at the Salar del Hombre Muerto 58
Table 25: FMC: Production and value of lithium carbonate and chloride at the Salta plant, Argentina 2005 to 2012 59
Table 26: ADY Resources: Salar del Rincón reserve estimation, 2007 60
Table 27: Lithium Americas: Lithium and potash resource estimation for the Cauchari-Olaroz property, July 2012 61
Table 28: Lithium Americas: Lithium and potash reserve estimation for the Cauchari-Olaroz property, July 2012 61
Table 29: Lithium Americas: Estimated capital costs for Lithium carbonate production at the Cauchari-Olaroz project, July 2012 63
Table 30: Lithium Americas: Estimated operating costs for Cauchari-Olaroz project, July 2012 65
Table 31: Galaxy Resources: Resource estimation for the Sal de Vida project, January 2012 66
Table 32: Galaxy Resources: Reserve estimate for the Sal de Vida project, April 2013 67
Table 33: Galaxy Resources: Estimated capital costs for Sal de Vida project, October 2011 68
Table 34: Orocobre: Agreements between Borax Argentina and other lithium companies 70
Table 35: Orocobre: Resource estimation for the Salar de Olaroz project, May 2011 71
Table 36: Orocobre: Assay results of first battery grade lithium carbonate product from the Orocobre pilot plant 72
Table 37: Orocobre: Capital costs for 16,400tpy LCE operation at the Salar de Olaroz, May 2011 73
Table 38: Orocobre: Operating costs for battery grade lithium carbonate for the Salar de Olaroz, May 2011 73
Table 39: Orocobre: Resource estimation for the Salinas Grande project, April 2012 74
Table 40: Orocobre: Averaged assay results from pit sampling of brine at the Guayatoyoc project 75
Table 41: Orocobre: Maiden resource estimation for the Salar de Cauchari project, October 2012 75
Table 42: Rodinia Lithium: Salar de Diablillos resource estimation, March 2011 76
Table 43: Rodinia Lithium: Estimated capital costs for the Salar de Diablillos project 77
Table 44: Rodinia Lithium: Estimated operating costs for the Salar de Diablillos project 77
Table 45: Rodinia Lithium: Other Argentine lithium projects 78
Table 46: Australia: Exports of mineral substances NES (excl. natural micaceous iron oxides) 2005 to 2012 81
Table 47: Australia: Unit value of mineral substances NES (excl. natural micaeous iron oxides) 2005 to 2011 81
Table 48: Talison Lithium: Resource estimation for the Greenbushes deposit, December 2012 83
Table 49: Talison Lithium: Lithium mineral reserve estimation for the Greenbushes deposit, December 2012 83
Table 50: Talison Lithium: Li, K and Na content of brines, Salares 7 project saline lakes 1998, (ppm) 84
Table 51: Talison Lithium: Li, K and Na content of brines, Salares 7 project saline lakes 2009, (ppm) 84
Table 52: Talison Lithium: Production and sales of lithium mineral concentrates and ores, 2005 to 2011 85
Table 53: Talison Lithium: Standard lithium mineral concentrate product specifications 87
Table 54: Galaxy Resources: Mount Cattlin mineral resource estimate, February 2011 89
Table 55: Galaxy Resources: Mount Cattlin mineral reserve estimate, December 2011 89
Table 56: Galaxy Resources: James Bay mineral resource estimate, November 2010 89
Table 57: Galaxy Resources: Mt. Cattlin mine and plant production, Q3 2010 - Q4 2011 90
Table 58: Reed Resources : Mt Marion resource estimation, July 2011 91
Table 59: Altura: Mineral resource estimation for the Pilgangoora lithium project, October 2012 92
Table 60: Belgium: Trade is lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 95
Table 61: Belgium: Trade in lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 96
Table 62: Salars and Lagunas in Bolivia identified by Gerencia Nacional de Recursos Evaporíticos 97
Table 63: Results of sampling campaign by Université de Liegé and Universidad Tecnica de Oruro at the Salar de Coipasa, 2002 99
Table 64: Assay data for brines intercepted during drilling at the Pastos Grandes Salar, August 2011 100
Table 65: Brazil: Lithium resource estimation by mineral type, 2009 101
Table 66: Brazil: Trade in lithium chemicals and concentrates, 2004 to 2011 102
Table 67: CBL: Production of lithium concentrates and lithium salts, 2005 to 2011 102
Table 68: Arqueana: Production of lithium concentrates, 2008 to 2011 103
Table 69: Canada: Resources estimations for Canadian lithium projects 106
Table 70: Canada: Imports and exports of lithium compounds 2005 to 2012 108
Table 71: TANCO: Spodumene concentrate production 2005 to 2011 109
Table 72: Canada Lithium: Resource estimation for the Quebec Lithium project, December 2011 109
Table 73: Canada Lithium: Reserve estimation for the Quebec Lithium project, December 2011 110
Table 74: Canada Lithium: Estimated capital expenditure for Quebec Lithium project (inc.LiOH and Na2SO4 plant costs), October 2012 111
Table 75 :Canada Lithium: Estimated operating expenditure for Quebec Lithium project, October 2012 111
Table 76: Nemaska Lithium: Resource estimation for the Whabouchi project, June 2011 113
Table 77: Nemaska Lithium: Reserve estimation for the Whabouchi project, October 2012 113
Table 78: Avalon Rare Metals: Separation Rapids NI 43-101 resource and reserve estimation, 1999 116
Table 79: Perilya Ltd: Mineral resource estimation for Moblan deposit, May 2011 117
Table 80: Rock Tech Lithium: Structure of the Georgia Lake project, November 2011 118
Table 81: Rock Tech Lithium: Updated mineral resource estimation for Georgia Lake project, July 2012 119
Table 82: Glen Eagle: Resource estimation for Authier lithium property, January 2012 121
Table 83: Canada: Lithium exploration projects in Canada with uncompleted scoping studies or PFS in October 2012 122
Table 84: Chile: Lithium carbonate, chloride and hydroxide production, 2004 to 2011 128
Table 85: Chile: Special operating licence bidders for the September 2012 auction 129
Table 86: SQM: Majority shareholders of SQM as of December 31st 2011 130
Table 87: SQM: Reserves within brines at the Salar de Atacama project 131
Table 88: SQM: Production, revenue and value per tonne of lithium compounds, 2003 to 2012 132
Table 89: SQM: Specifications for lithium carbonate 133
Table 90: SQM: Specifications for lithium hydroxide 134
Table 91: RWL: Gross tonnage, value and unit value of lithium carbonate exports, 2006 to 2012 137
Table 92: RWL: Gross tonnage, value and unit value of lithium chloride exports, 2006 to 2012 138
Table 93: Li3 Energy: Resource estimation for the Maricunga property, April 2012 140
Table 94: Chile: Exports of lithium carbonate by destination, 2004 to 2011 144
Table 95: Chile: Lithium carbonate export volume, value and unit price by company, 2005 to 2011 144
Table 96: Chile: Lithium chloride exports by destination, 2004 to 2012 145
Table 97: Chile: Lithium hydroxide exports by destination, 2004 to 2012 146
Table 98: China : Estimated resources and reserves of both lithium mineral and brine operations and projects 148
Table 99: China: Production of lithium, 2003 to 2012 149
Table 100: China: Producers of lithium minerals, 2011 to 2012 151
Table 101: China: Production and capacity of Chinese lithium brine operations, 2011 152
Table 102: China: Mineral conversion plant production and production capacity, 2012 154
Table 103: China: Producers of battery grade lithium metal, 2012 154
Table 104: China: Imports and exports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 155
Table 105: China: Imports and exports of lithium chloride, 2005 to 2012 156
Table 106: China: Imports and exports of lithium hydroxide, 2005 to 2012 157
Table 107: China: Imports and exports of lithium oxide, 2005 to 2012 157
Table 108: Tibet Lithium New Technology Development: Lithium production, 2010 to 2012 158
Table 109: Qinghai CITIC: Lithium carbonate production, 2008 to 2012 160
Table 110: Dangxiongcuo reserve estimation from 2006 qualifying report 163
Table 111: Jiangxi Western Resources: Lithium Production, 2010 167
Table 112: Sichuan Tianqi: Production and sales of lithium products, 2010 to 2011 169
Table 113: Galaxy Resources: Battery grade lithium carbonate chemical specifications 172
Table 114: KeliberOy: Claims, reservation and mining concessions for lithium projects held by Keliber in Finland, 2012 181
Table 115: France: Imports and exports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 183
Table 116: France: Imports and exports of lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 184
Table 117: Germany: Imports and exports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 184
Table 118: India: Trade in lithium hydroxide and oxides, 2005 to 2012 187
Table 119: India: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 187
Table 120: India: Producers of lithium chemicals 188
Table 121: Japan: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 190
Table 122: Japan: Trade in lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 191
Table 123: Mexico: LitioMex S.A. concessions and resource estimations 194
Table 124: Namibia: Production of lithium minerals, 1990 to 1998 197
Table 125: Netherlands: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 198
Table 126: Netherlands: Trade in lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 199
Table 127: SociedadMineira de Pegmatites: Production of Lithium, 2004 to 2012 200
Table 128: Russia: Deposits of lithium 201
Table 129: Russia: Imports of lithium carbonate, 2002 to 2012 204
Table 130: Russia: Exports of lithium hydroxide, 2002 to 2012 204
Table 131: Russia: Imports of lithium hydroxide, 2002 to 2012 205
Table 132: South Korea: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 207
Table 133: South Korea: Trade in lithium hydroxide, 2005 to 2012 207
Table 134: Spain: Imports of lithium compounds, 2005 to 2012 208
Table 135: Minera Del Duero: Production of lepidolite in Spain, 2003 to 2011 208
Table 136: Inferred mineral resource estimation for the Doade-Presquerias project, October 2011 209
Table 137: Taiwan: Imports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 210
Table 138: UK: Imports of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxides and oxides 2005 to 2012 211
Table 139: USA: Imports and exports of lithium carbonate 2005 to 2012 213
Table 140: USA: Imports and exports of lithium oxide and hydroxide 2005 to 2012 214
Table 141: FMC: Product range 218
Table 142: WLC: Resource estimation for the Kings Valley project, January 2012 219
Table 143: WLC: Reserve estimation for the Kings Valley project, December 2011 220
Table 144: WLC: Estimated operating and capital costs for 'Case 1' and 'Case 2' scenarios at the Kings Valley project. 221
Table 145: USA: Lithium exploration projects yet to reach scoping study or PFS stage in development 224
Table 146: Zimbabwe: South African imports of mineral substances from Zimbabwe, 2005 to 2012 227
Table 147: Bikita Minerals: Mine production and lithium content 2003 to 2011 228
Table 148: World: Total exports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 230
Table 149: World: Total imports of lithium carbonate, 2005 to 2012 232
Table 150: World: Total exports of lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 234
Table 151: World: Total imports of lithium hydroxide and oxide, 2005 to 2012 236
Table 152: World: Major importers and exporters of lithium chloride, 2005 to 2012 237
Table 153: World: Exports of lithium minerals by major lithium mineral producing nations (excl. China), 2005 to 2012 238
Table 154: Chile: Exports of lithium chloride brine1 by SQM to China, 2005 to 2012 238
Table 155: World: Consumption of lithium by end-use, 2002, 2007 and 2012 240
Table 156: World: Estimated consumption of lithium by country/region, 2002, 2007 and 2012 244
Table 157: World: Consumption of lithium by end-use, by product, 2012 246
Table 158: World: Forecast consumption of lithium by end-use, 2012 to 2017 248
Table 159: Japan: Producers of lithium-ion battery cathode materials, 2012 265
Table 160: South Korea: Producers of lithium-ion battery cathode materials, 2012 265
Table 161: China: Producers of lithium-ion battery cathode materials, 2012 266
Table 162: World: Producers of lithium salts for electrolytes, 2012 267
Table 163: World: Lithium battery consumption in 3C products, 2012 269
Table 164: World: Lithium battery consumption in power devices and motive power, 2012 271
Table 165: World: Lithium battery consumption in heavy duty applications, 2012 272
Table 166: World: Lithium battery consumption in transport applications, 2012 274
Table 167: World: Lithium consumption in rechargeable lithium batteries end-use, 2012 275
Table 168: World: Lithium consumption in NiMH and NiCd batteries, 2012 275
Table 169: World: Consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries by type, 2007 to 2012 277
Table 170: Japan: Consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries, 2007 to 2012 277
Table 171: World: Consumption of lithium in rechargeable batteries by country, 2007 to 2012 278
Table 172: World: Rechargeable lithium battery demand by market, 2012 and 2017 278
Table 173: World: Comparison of EV production estimates in 2017 by industry consultant 280
Table 174: World: Forecast rechargeable battery consumption in EVs, 2017 281
Table 175: World: Lithium consumption in rechargeable lithium batteries by end-use, 2017 281
Table 176: World: Forecast demand for lithium in rechargeable lithium batteries, 2012 to 2017 282
Table 177: World: Forecast demand for lithium in rechargeable batteries by battery type, 2012 to 2017 282
Table 178: World: Forecast demand for lithium in rechargeable batteries by product type, 2007 to 2012 283
Table 179: Typical whiteware body compositions 285
Table 180: World: Production of ceramic tiles by leading country, 2007 to 2012 287
Table 181: World: Consumption of ceramic tiles by leading countries, 2007 to 2011 289
Table 182: World: Leading ceramic tile manufacturing companies, 2010 290
Table 183: World: Leading sanitaryware manufacturing companies, 2010 292
Table 184: World: Consumption of lithium in ceramics, 2012 300
Table 185: World: Consumption of lithium in ceramics, 2007 to 2012 300
Table 186: World: Forecast demand for lithium in ceramics, 2012 to 2017 301
Table 187: Glass-ceramic matrices 302
Table 188: Compositions of commercial glass-ceramics 303
Table 189: Japan: Consumption of lithium carbonate in glass-ceramics, 2007 to 2012 306
Table 190: World: Consumption of lithium in glass-ceramics by end-use and product type, 2012 307
Table 191: World: Consumption of lithium in glass-ceramics, 2007 to 2012 307
Table 192: World: Forecast demand for lithium in glass-ceramics, 2012 to 2017 308
Table 193: Properties of commercial greases 311
Table 194: World: Producers of lubricating grease 315
Table 195: World: Forecast demand for lithium in greases, 2012 to 2017 322
Table 196: Typical batch compositions for glass by type 323
Table 197: Main sources of lithium used in glass 324
Table 198: EU: Production of glass by type, 1998 to 2012 328
Table 199: USA: Production of container glass, 1999 to 2008 328
Table 200: Typical chemical composition of types of textile-grade fibreglass 329
Table 201: World: Estimated consumption of lithium in glass, 2012 331
Table 202: World: Consumption of lithium in glass, 2007 to 2012 331
Table 203: World: Forecast demand for lithium in glass, 2012 to 2017 332
Table 204: World: Consumption of lithium in continuous casting mould powders, 2007 to 2012 336
Table 205: Japan: Consumption of lithium in fluxes, 2007 to 2012 336
Table 206: World: Forecast demand for lithium in casting powders, 2012 to 2017 337
Table 207: Microstructure of different types of polybutadienes 339
Table 208: World: Producers of SSBR, BR and SBC, 2012 343
Table 209: World: Planned new/expanded SBR, BR and SBC plants 344
Table 210: World: Forecast demand for lithium in synthetic rubber and thermoplastics, 2011 to 2017 349
Table 211: World: Capacity for lithium bromide production, end-2012 355
Table 212: Japan: Consumption of lithium bromide, 2007 to 2012 356
Table 213: World: Forecast demand for lithium in air treatment, 2012 to 2017 361
Table 214: Characteristics of primary lithium batteries 363
Table 215: Japan: Production of primary batteries by type, 1998 to 2012 367
Table 216: World: Trade in lithium primary batteries, 2007 to 2011 369
Table 217: Primary lithium batteries and their material compositions 371
Table 218: Specifications for battery-grade lithium metal 371
Table 219: World: Producers of battery-grade lithium metal, end-2012 372
Table 220: Japan: Consumption of lithium in primary lithium batteries, 2007 to 2012 375
Table 221: Japan: Unit consumption of lithium in primary batteries, 2007 to 2012 375
Table 222: World: Imports of battery-grade lithium metal, 2007 to 2012 376
Table 223: World: Forecast demand for lithium in primary batteries, 2012 to 2017 377
Table 224: Effects of additives and temperatures on properties of molten cryolite 379
Table 225: World: Aluminium smelters using Söderberg technology, end-2012 381
Table 226: World: Forecast demand for lithium in aluminium smelting, 2012 to 2017 384
Table 227: World: Consumption of lithium in other end-uses, 2007, 2012 and 2017 385
Table 228: Examples of uses for lithium in organic synthesis 387
Table 229: Physical properties of Al-Li alloys 392
Table 230: Chemical composition of Al-Li alloys 393
Table 231: Use of Al-Li alloys in selected aircraft 397
Table 232: World: Forecast demand for lithium in aluminium-lithium alloys, 2012 to 2017 399
Table 233: Properties of lithium niobate and lithium tantalite 401
Table 234: Applications for SAW components 401
Table 235: Applications for speciality inorganic lithium compounds 406
Table 236: Prices of lithium minerals, 2000-2013 410
Table 237: Comparison of prices for lithium minerals and carbonate, 2004 to 2012 411
Table 238: Comparison of prices for chemical-grade spodumene concentrate and lithium carbonate, 2004 to 2012 412
Table 239: Comparison of technical- and battery- grade lithium carbonate prices, 2004 to 2012 416
Table 240: Average values of exports/imports of lithium oxides and hydroxides by leading exporting/importing country, 2004 to 2012 417
Table 241: Average values of exports of lithium chloride by leading producing country, 2004 to 2012 420
Table 242: Average values of exports of lithium metal by leading producing country, 2004 to 2012 421
Table 243: World: Forecast nominal and real prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 2012 to 2017 423
Table 244: World: Forecast nominal prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate and chemical-grade lithium minerals, 2012 to 2017 425
Table 245: World: Forecast nominal prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate and technical-grade lithium hydroxide, 2012 to 2017 426
List of Figures
Figure 1: Lithium product flow chart and main end-uses, 2012 1
Figure 2: Consumption of lithium by end-use, 2000 to 2012 2
Figure 3: Production of lithium by country, 2000 to 2012 4
Figure 4: Price history of lithium carbonate, 1990 to 2012 6
Figure 5: World: Forecast real prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 2012 to 2017 9
Figure 6: Overview of lithium production 16
Figure 7: Extraction and processing of brines from the Salar de Atacama, Chile and Silver Peak, Nevada by Rockwood Lithium 18
Figure 8: Flow sheet showing the processing of brines at Salar de Carmen by SQM 19
Figure 9: Simplified flow sheet of the Li SX™ method patented by Bateman Lithium Projects 21
Figure 10: Simplified mineral concentrate production flow sheet for a typical hard rock lithium operation 22
Figure 11: Simplified flow sheet for lithium carbonate production from spodumene mineral concentrate using the acid-roast method 24
Figure 12: Simplified flow sheet for lithium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide monohydrate production from spodumene mineral concentrate using the lime-roast method 25
Figure 13: Simplified flow sheet for lithium carbonate production from hectorite clay developed by Western Lithium 27
Figure 14: Mining and milling costs for hard rock lithium mineral operations/projects 31
Figure 15: Lithium carbonate cash operating costs, 2012 32
Figure 16: Potential new producers production costs 33
Figure 17: World: Production of lithium by country, 2000 to 2012 34
Figure 18: Production of lithium from mineral and brine sources, 2005 to 2012 37
Figure 19: Production of lithium minerals by company, 2012 38
Figure 20: Production of lithium from brines by country, 2005 to 2012 40
Figure 21: Planned production capacity and consumption for lithium, 2012 to 2017 45
Figure 22: Forecast production and consumption of lithium, 2012 to 2017 54
Figure 23: Pilot plant flow sheet developed for Lithium Americas at SGS Mineral Services 62
Figure 24: Brazil: Production of Lithium products 2005 to 2010 101
Figure 25: SQM: Lithium sales by destination 2011, 2009, 2007 and 2005 135
Figure 26: SQM: Destination of lithium carbonate exports, 2006 to 2011 136
Figure 27: China: Location of mineral conversion and lithium chemical/metal plants in China, 2012 153
Figure 28: Japan: Imports of lithium carbonate, hydroxide & oxide and combined LCE, 2005 to 2012 191
Figure 29: World: Leading exporters of lithium carbonate, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012 231
Figure 30: World: Leading importers of lithium carbonate, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012 233
Figure 31: World: Leading exporters of lithium hydroxide and oxides, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012 235
Figure 32: World: Growth in consumption of lithium, 2000 to 2012 239
Figure 33: World: Consumption of lithium by end-use, 2012 240
Figure 34: World: Consumption of lithium by end-use, 2000 to 2012 241
Figure 35: World: Consumption of lithium by end-use, 2000 to 2012 241
Figure 36: World: Estimated consumption of lithium by country/region, 2002, 2007 and 2012 244
Figure 37: World: Consumption of lithium by product, 2012 245
Figure 38: World: Consumption of lithium by type, 2000 to 2012 247
Figure 39: World: Historical and forecast consumption of lithium by end-use, 2007 to 2017 248
Figure 40: World: Forecast consumption of lithium by form, 2007, 2012 and 2017 252
Figure 41: Specific energy and energy density of rechargeable batteries 253
Figure 42: Lithium-ion battery schematic 254
Figure 43: Lithium metal polymer battery schematic 256
Figure 44: Lithium-sulphur cell schematic 257
Figure 45: Lithium-air cell schematic 258
Figure 46: World: Production of rechargeable batteries1, 1995 to 2012 259
Figure 47: World: Production of rechargeable batteries1, 1995 to 2012 260
Figure 48: World: Rechargeable lithium battery production by country, 2000 to 2012 260
Figure 49: Lithium-ion battery materials value chain 263
Figure 50: World: Production of lithium cathode materials by type, 2000 to 2012 264
Figure 51: World: Market for rechargeable lithium batteries by end-use, 2002, 2007 and 2012 268
Figure 52: World: Market for rechargeable lithium batteries by end-use, 2012 269
Figure 53: World: Production of rechargeable batteries and consumption of lithium, 2000 to 2012 276
Figure 54: World: Market for rechargeable lithium batteries by end-use, 2002 to 2017 279
Figure 55: World: Ceramic tile production by region, 2007 and 2012 288
Figure 56: World: Sanitaryware production by region/country, 2010 291
Figure 57: World: Production of tableware by country/region, 2008 293
Figure 58: USA: Shipments of cookware, bakeware and kitchenware, 2001 to 2010 295
Figure 59: World: Shipments of white goods by region, 2000 to 2020 296
Figure 60: World: Year-on-year growth in construction spending and GDP, 2000 to 2017 298
Figure 61: World: Production of lubricating grease by additive type, 2011 312
Figure 62: World: Production of lubricating grease by type, 2000 to 2012 313
Figure 63: World: Production of lithium grease by region/country and by type, 2000 and 2011 314
Figure 64: World: Output of automobiles by region, 2000 to 2012 318
Figure 65: World: Deliveries of commercial aircraft, 2000 to 2012 318
Figure 66: World: Shipbuilding deliveries, 2000 to 2012 319
Figure 67: World: Relative industrial and transport output and lithium grease production, 2002 to 2011 320
Figure 68: World: Production of grease and consumption of lithium, 2000 to 2012 321
Figure 69: World: Estimated production of glass by type, 2012 326
Figure 70: World: Production of container glass by region/country, 2012 326
Figure 71: World: Consumption of glass packaging by region, 2011 327
Figure 72: World: Production of continuously cast steel by region, 1998 to 2012 335
Figure 73: World: Capacity for synthetic rubber production by country/region, 2012 340
Figure 74: World: Capacity for BR, ESBR and SSBR rubber by country/region, end-2011 341
Figure 75: World: SBC capacity by region/country, end-2010 341
Figure 76: World: Production of synthetic rubber by region, 1996 to 2011 342
Figure 77: World: Consumption of synthetic rubber by type, 2012 345
Figure 78: World: consumption of BR by end-use, 2010 346
Figure 79: World: Consumption of SBC by region/country, 2010 347
Figure 80: Consumption of SBC by end-use, 2007 347
Figure 81: World: Production of absorption chillers, 2003 to 2012 352
Figure 82: World: Consumption of lithium bromide in air treatment, 2001 to 2012 356
Figure 83: Specific energy and energy density of primary batteries 362
Figure 84: Primary and secondary battery gravimetric energy density 365
Figure 85: World: Production of primary lithium batteries by country, 1998 to 2012 366
Figure 86: Primary lithium battery schematics 370
Figure 87: World: Demand for lithium metal in primary batteries, 2000 to 2012 376
Figure 88: World: Aluminium output by type and lithium consumption, 2000 to 2012 383
Figure 89: World: Consumption of alkyd-based paints and coatings, 2010 390
Figure 90: Development of Al-Li alloys 392
Figure 91: World: Deliveries of commercial aircraft and lithium consumption, 2007 to 2019 399
Figure 92: Price history of lithium carbonate, 1990 to 2012 408
Figure 93: Compound annual prices of lithium minerals, 2000 to 2013 411
Figure 94: Prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 1999 to 2012 414
Figure 95: Prices for battery-grade lithium carbonate, 1999 to 2012 415
Figure 96: Comparison of lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate prices, 2000 to 2012 418
Figure 97: Japan: Quarterly average import value of lithium hydroxide from the USA, 2008 to 2012 419
Figure 98: World: Forecast nominal prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 2012 to 2017 423
Figure 99: World: Forecast real prices for technical-grade lithium carbonate, 2012 to 2017 424
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